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\author{Misha Koshelev$^1$ and Patrick Taillibert$^2$\\
$\ $\\
$^1$1003 Robinson\\
El Paso, TX 79902, USA\\
email {\tt mkosh@cs.utep.edu}\\
$\ $\\
$^2$Dassault Electronique\\
55 Quai Marcel Dassault\\
92214 Saint Cloud, France\\
email {\tt Patrick.Taillibert@dassault-elec.fr}}

\title{Optimal Approximation of Quadratic Interval Functions}
\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
Measurements are never absolutely accurate; as a result, after each
measurement, we do not get the {\it exact} value of the measured
quantity; at best, we get an {\it interval} of its possible values. 

For dynamically changing quantities $x$, the additional problem is that we
cannot measure them continuously; we can only measure them at certain
discrete moments of time $t_1,t_2,\ldots$. If we know that the value
$x(t_j)$ 
at a moment $t_j$ of the last measurement was in the interval
$[x^-(t_j),x^+(t_j)]$, and if we know the upper bound
$D$ on the rate with which $x$ changes (i.e., on the absolute value
$|\dot x(t)|$ of the derivative $\dot x(t)$), 
then, for any given moment of time
$t$, we can conclude that $x(t)$ belongs to the interval
$[x^-(t_j)-D\cdot (t-t_j),x^+(t_j)+D\cdot(t-t_j)]$. This interval
changes {\it linearly} with time, an is, therefore, called a {\it
linear interval function}. 

When we process these intervals, we get an expression that is
quadratic and higher order w.r.t. time $t$. Such ``quadratic''
intervals are difficult to process and therefore, it is necessary to
approximate them by linear ones. 

In this paper, we describe an algorithm that gives the optimal
approximation of quadratic interval functions by linear ones.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction: intervals, linear and 
quadratic interval functions, and why
it is necessary to approximate}

\noindent{\bf The need for indirect measurements.}
In many real-life problems, we are interested in the values of a
quantity $y$ that is difficult or impossible to measure directly. For
example:
\begin{itemize}
\item in {\it astrophysics}, we cannot directly measure the mass or
the temperature of the star; 
\item in {\it geophysics}, we cannot directly
measure the amount of oil in a given area, etc. 
\end{itemize}
In all these situations, we measure some related quantities
$x_1,\ldots,x_n$ that {\it can} be measured directly, and then use the
known relationship $y=f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$ between $x_i$ and $y$ and the
results $\tilde x_i$ of measuring $x_i$ to estimate $y$ as $\tilde
y=f(\tilde x_1,\ldots,\tilde x_n)$. 
For example:
\begin{itemize}
\item to measure the temperature of the star, we measure its
brightness $x_1,\ldots,x_n$ 
on different wavelengths, and then try to fit the resulting
spectrum into a black-body radiation spectrum corresponding to the
temperature $y$;
\item to estimate the amount of oil $y$ in a given area, we
measure the geophysical characteristics of different parts of it, and
use known equations to estimate $y$.
\end{itemize}
In contrast to a direct measurement of $x_i$, this two-stage process
of direct measurements followed by data processing is called {\it
indirect measurement}. 

In space sciences, and especially in their
applications to environmental and earth sciences, indirect
measurements are the main method of measurement.
\medskip

\noindent{\bf The main problem: estimating accuracy of the result of
data processing.} After the data processing is over, the main problem
is: how accurate is the result
$\tilde y$ of data processing?

For example, suppose that we estimate the amount of oil in a given
area, and we got $\tilde y=100$ mln ton. Our further actions will
depend on the accuracy of this result:
\begin{itemize}
\item if the accuracy is high, e.g., if the 
actual amount of oil is $100\pm 1$, then we will probably
start drilling;
\item however, if the accuracy is low, and the actual value if, say,
$100\pm 100$, then it may make more sense to undertake further, more
accurate, measurements. 
\end{itemize}
The inaccuracy in $y$ comes from two sources:
\begin{itemize}
\item First, the model $y=f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$ that is used in data
processing is often inaccurate. This
inaccuracy is the easiest to take into consideration: if we know the
upper bound $\Delta_m$ on the error 
$y-f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$ of this model, and if we know the values of
$x_i$, then we can conclude that the actual value of $y$ belongs to
the interval $[\tilde y-\Delta_m,\tilde y+\Delta_m]$, where $\tilde
y=f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$.
\item Second, the measurement results $\tilde x_i$ are also inaccurate
and therefore, may differ from the actual values of the measured
quantities $x_i$. This error is much more difficult to estimate, and
this is what we will be doing in the present paper.  
\end{itemize}

\noindent{\bf Intervals.} Measurements are never
100\% precise. Thus, if, as the result of measuring a certain quantity $x_i$,
we get a measurement result $\tilde x_i$, it does not necessarily mean that
the actual value $x_i$ of this quantity is exactly equal to $\tilde x_i$. 

The manufacturer of the measuring instrument usually supplies it with
the upper bound $\Delta_i$ for the measurement error $\Delta x_i=\tilde
x_i-x_i$; in order words, the manufacturer guarantees that $|\Delta
x_i|\le\Delta_i$. 

In this case, if we have measured a quantity $x_i$ and the measurement
result is $\tilde x_i$, then the only information that we have about the
actual value is that this actual value cannot differ from $\tilde x_i$
by more than $\Delta_i$, i.e., that this actual value must be within the
{\it interval} $[\tilde x_i-\Delta_i,\tilde x_i+\Delta_i]$. 

If we know these intervals, then the set $Y$ of possible values of
$y=f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$ can be described as follows:
$$Y=\{f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)\,|\,x_1\in [x^-_1,x^+_1],\ldots,
x_n\in[x^-_n,x^+_n]\}.\eqno{(1)}$$

\noindent{\it Comments.} 
\begin{itemize}
\item 
Sometimes, in addition to the upper bound for the error, we know the {\it
probabilities} of different error values. However, in many real-life cases, we
do not know these probabilities, and the upper bound $\Delta_i$ is the only
information about the measurement error $\Delta x_i$ that we have. 
\item 
Computations that take this interval uncertainty into consideration
are called {\it interval computations} (see, e.g.,
\cite{Kearfott96,Kearfott96a}). 
\end{itemize}

\noindent{\bf Linear interval functions.} In some cases, the values $x_i$ do
not change with time. In these cases, the only inaccuracy is caused by
the inaccuracy of the direct measurement.

However, in many real-life situations, the measured values change with
time. For such 
dynamically changing quantities $x_i$, there is an additional source
of uncertainty: namely, we
cannot measure a quantity continuously; we can only measure it at certain
discrete moments of time $t_1,t_2,\ldots$ Hence: 
\begin{itemize}
\item If we are interested in the value of $x_i(t_j)$ at one of the
moments of time $t_j$ in which we have actually measured $x_i$, then the
inaccuracy of the direct measurement is the only source of the
measurement error, and we get the interval $[x^-_i(t_j),x^+_i(t_j)]$
of possible values of $x_i(t_j)$. 
\item However, if we are interested
in the value $x_i(t)$ of the quantity $x_i$ at a moment of time $t$ 
in which no direct measurement of $x_i$ 
was performed, then we must use one of the measured
values, and get an additional error component caused by the change of $x_i$
between the moment $t_j$ of the last 
measurement and the desired moment $t$. 
There are two methods to take this additional error into
consideration:
\begin{itemize}
\item If we know the upper bound
$D_i$ on the rate with which $x$ changes (i.e., on the absolute value
$|\dot x_i(t)|$ of the derivative $\dot x_i(t)$), 
then, for any given moment of time
$t$, we can conclude that $x_i(t_j)-D_i\cdot(t-t_j)\le x_i(t)\le
x_i(t_j)+D_i\cdot(t-t_j)$. Hence, from the fact that $x^-_i(t_j)\le
x_i(t_j)\le x^+(t_j)$, we conclude that the value $x_i(t)$ belongs to
the interval $[x^-_i(t),x^+_i(t)]$, where 
$x^-_i(t)=x^-_i(t_j)-D_i\cdot (t-t_j)$ and 
$x^+_i(t)=x^+_i(t_j)+D_i\cdot(t-t_j)$.
\item In some cases, simultaneously with measuring the values
$x_i(t_j)$, we can directly measure the rate $\dot x_i(t_j)$ 
with which these values
change; e.g., 
\begin{itemize}
\item simultaneously with measuring coordinates $x_i(t)$ of a robot, we
can measure its velocity $\dot x_i(t)$; 
\item simultaneously with measuring the velocity $x_i(t)$, we
can measure the acceleration $\dot x_i(t)$; etc.  
\end{itemize}
In these case, if we know the interval of possible values $[\dot
x^-_i(t_j),\dot x^+_i(t_j)]$ of the rate, and we know that the upper bound
$S_i$ on the absolute value of the 
second time derivative, we can conclude that:
\begin{itemize}
\item for all $t\in
[t_j,t_{j+1}]$, the values $\dot x_i(t_j)$ belong to the intervals
$[v^-,v^+]$, where\\
$v^-=\dot x^-_i(t_j)-S_i\cdot (t_{j+1}-t_j)$ and 
$v^+=\dot x^+_i(t_j)+S_i\cdot (t_{j+1}-t_j)$, and therefore, that 
\item for
each of these moments of time, the actual values of $x_i(t)$ 
belong to the interval $[x^-(t),x^+(t)]$, where
$x^-(t)=x^-_i(t_j)-v^-\cdot (t-t_j)$ and 
$x^+(t)=x^+_i(t_j)+v^+\cdot (t-t_j)$.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize} 
In general, the only information that we have about the actual
value of $x(t)$ is that $x(t)\in {\bf x}(t)=[x^-(t),x^+(t)]$. In other words,
instead of a single {\it interval}, we have an {\it interval function} that
assigns an interval ${\bf x}(t)$ to each moment of time $t$. 

In our cases, the endpoints $x^-(t)$
and $x^+(t)$ of this interval are linear functions and therefore, it
is natural to call this interval function {\it linear interval
function}. 
\medskip

\noindent{\bf For linear data processing, linear interval functions
remain linear.} If the algorithm $f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)$ is a linear
function, then, as a result of applying this algorithm to the interval
linear functions, we get an estimate (1) that is either a linear or
a piece-wise linear function of time $t$. 

In \cite{Lhomme93,Lhomme96,Loiez96,Loiez96a},
such linear interval functions were effectively used in electrical and
electronic engineering analysis of circuits with linear elements.
\medskip

\noindent{\bf For non-linear data processing, we need an
approximation.}
In most real-life situations, however, data processing algorithms are
non-linear. As a result, if we start with the intervals for $x_i(t)$
that are linear in time $t$, we end up with intervals for $y(t)$ whose
dependence on $t$ is much more complicated. For example:
\begin{itemize}
\item if we {\it
add} or {\it subtract} two intervals that are linear in time, we still
get the result that is linear in time; but 
\item if we {\it multiply} two
intervals that are linear in time, then their endpoints also get
multiplied, and, as a result, we get an interval function
$[y^-(t),y^+(t)]$ in which the endpoints are {\it quadratic} functions
of time (i.e., we get {\it quadratic interval functions}). 
\end{itemize}
If we multiply more, we get cubic, quartic, etc. functions; see, e.g.,
\cite{Loiez96a}. In
principle, there is nothing wrong with this complexity, except for the
fact that while a linear interval function requires only 4 numbers to
store (2 coefficients of the lower endpoint and 2 coefficients of the
upper endpoint), quadratic functions require 6 coefficients, cubic
functions require 8, etc. 
The more complicated the function becomes, the more memory we need
to store these coefficients, and the longer it takes to process these
functions.

Thus, since we are often limited both in processing time and in
memory (especially if the processing is done in an on-board
computer), we must {\it approximate} the given complicated interval
function by a simpler one. 

In other words, if we have an interval function 
${\bf y}(t)=[y^-(t),y^+(t)]$ that
is known to contain the actual value $y(t)$, we want to
be able to find a simpler interval function ${\bf z}(t)=[z^-(t),z^+(t)]$ that
for each $t$, contains the entire interval ${\bf y}(t)$ and is, thus,
guaranteed to contain the actual value $y(t)$.

Of course, this approximation comes at a trade-off: we simplify the
expression, but we make the interval wider (and therefore, lose some
information). Therefore, the narrower the approximating interval
function, the better. 
\medskip

\noindent{\bf What we are planning to do.}
The simplest approximation problem of this type is the problem of
approximating a quadratic interval function by linear ones. In this
paper, we will present an optimal solution to this problem. 
\newpage

\section{When is the approximation optimal? Mathematical
formulation of the problem}

\noindent{\bf Definition 1.} {\sl Let an interval $[t^-,t^+]$ be
fixed. 
\begin{itemize}
\item By an {\it interval function}, we mean a mapping ${\bf x}$ that
puts into correspondence to each number $t\in [t^-,t^+]$ an interval
${\bf x}(t)=[x^-(t),x^+(t)]$. 
\item If both functions $x^-(t)$ and $x^+(t)$ are {\it linear}
functions of $t$ (i.e., if $x^\pm(t)=x^\pm_0+x^\pm_1\cdot t$), 
we say that the interval function is {\it linear.}
\item If both functions $x^-(t)$ and $x^+(t)$ are {\it quadratic}
functions of $t$ (i.e., if $x^\pm(t)=x^\pm_0+x^\pm_1\cdot t+
x^\pm_2\cdot t^2$), 
we say that the interval function is {\it quadratic.}
\item We say that a linear interval function ${\bf z}(t)=[z^-(t),z^+(t)]$ 
{\it approximates} a
quadratic interval function ${\bf y}(t)=[y^-(t),y^+(t)]$ 
if ${\bf y}(t)\subseteq {\bf z}(t)$ for all $t$. 
\end{itemize}}

\noindent{\it Comment.} The narrower the intervals, the better. So,
our goal is to minimize the worse-case width of the approximating
interval, i.e., the value $W({\bf z})=\max_t (z^+(t)-z^-(t))$. 

We will see that in some cases, for a given quadratic interval
function ${\bf y}(t)$, there are several approximating linear interval 
functions $\bf z$ with the same value of $W({\bf z})$. 
If two different approximating functions have the same worst-case
widths, then it is reasonable to choose the one for which the
best-case width $w({\bf z})=\min_t (z^+(t)-z^-(t))$ is the
smallest. Thus, we arrive at the following definition:
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Definition 2.} {\sl 
\begin{itemize}
\item For every interval function ${\bf z}(t)$:
\begin{itemize}
\item by its {\it worst-case width}, we mean a value 
$$W({\bf z})=\max_{t\in [t^-,t^+]}(z^+(t)-z^-(t)).$$
\item by its {\it best-case width}, we mean a value 
$$w({\bf z})=\min_{t\in [t^-,t^+]}(z^+(t)-z^-(t)).$$
\end{itemize}
\item Let a quadratic interval function 
$\bf y$ be fixed. We say that a linear function $\bf z$ is an {\it
optimal} approximation of $\bf y$ if the following conditions are
satisfied:
\begin{itemize}
\item first, $\bf z$ is an approximation of $\bf y$.
\item second, among all linear approximations to $\bf y$, the function
$\bf z$ has the smallest value of the worst-case width $W({\bf z})$;  
\item third, if there exist several 
linear approximations $\bf u$ to $\bf y$, with the same smallest 
value of the worst-case width $W({\bf u})$,
the function $\bf z$ has the smallest value of the best-case width
$w({\bf z})$. 
\end{itemize} 
\end{itemize}}

\noindent {\bf What we are planning to do.} 
In this paper, we will describe the optimal 
linear approximation to an arbitrary quadratic interval function. 

The resulting formulas will depend on the signs of the coefficients 
($y^-_2$ and $y^+_2$) at the quadratic term $t^2$. 
In each of the resulting four cases, we
will describe the geometric idea that leads to the optimal
approximation, and give the explicit formulas for this approximation. 

\section{Case 1: $y^-_2\le 0$, $y^+_2\ge 0$}

\noindent{\bf Derivation of the solution.} 
In this case, 
both functions $y^-(x)$ and $y^+(x)$ are ``pointing inward''. 

If ${\bf z}(t)$ is a linear interval approximation to the given
quadratic interval function, then, from ${\bf y}(t)\subseteq {\bf
z}(t)$, it follows, in particular, that $z^-(t)\le y^-(t)$ for all
$t\in [t^-,t^+]$; therefore, $z^-(t^-)\le y^-(t^-)$
and $z^-(t^+)\le y^-(t^+)$. 

Since $y^-_2\le 0$, the quadratic function $y^-(t)$ is concave and
hence, from $z^-(t^-)\le y^-(t^-)$
and $z^-(t^+)\le y^-(t^+)$, i.e., from the fact that the line $z^-(t)$
lies below the two endpoints of the 
graph of $y^-(t)$, it automatically follows that the entire graph of
$y^-(t)$ is above the line $z^-(t)$. So, it is sufficient to guarantee that
at the endpoints, the values $z^-(t^\pm)$ do not exceed the
corresponding values of $y^-(t^\pm)$. 

For fixed $z^+(t)$, the resulting intervals are the narrowest when
the line $z^-(t)$ is at the highest possible location. Thus, to
minimize the widths of the intervals, we must
move both points $z^-(t^\pm)$ up as much as possible. The highest
possible location for $z^-(t^-)$ is $y^-(t^-)$, and the highest
possible location for $z^-(t^+)$ is $y^-(t^+)$. Thus, $y^-(t)$ is a
a straight line going through $y^-(t^\pm)$, i.e., a {\it secant}. 

Similarly, $z^+(t)$ is a secant of $y^+(t)$. 
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Solution.} 
In the optimal approximation, 
the function $z^-(t)$ is the {\it secant} of $y^-(t)$, i.e., 
a straight line whose endpoints are the
endpoints of the quadratic function $y^-(t)$ on this interval.
Similarly, $z^+(t)$ is a secant of $y^+(t)$, i.e., 
$$z^-(t)=y^-(t^-)+{y^-(t^+)-y^-(t^-)\over
t^+-t^-}\cdot (t-t^-),\eqno{(2)}$$
$$z^-(t)=y^+(t^-)+{y^+(t^+)-y^+(t^-)\over
t^+-t^-}\cdot (t-t^-).\eqno{(3)}$$

\section{Case 2: $y^-_2\le 0$, $y^+_2<0$}

\noindent{\bf Derivation of the solution.} 
The arguments given for Case 1 show that 
in this case, the function $z^-(t)$ is still the secant. 
With $z^-(t)$ fixed, it is sufficient to find the upper function
$z^+(t)$ for which the resulting approximation is optimal. 

Let us first guarantee that the worst-case width is indeed the
smallest possible. If this width is equal to $W_0$, this means that
$z^+(t)\le z^-(t)+W_0$, and therefore, that $y^+(t)\le z^+(t)\le
z^-(t)+W_0$. Thus, to guarantee that $W_0$ takes the
smallest possible values, we must choose $W_0$ as the smallest
possible value for which $y^+(t)\le z^-(t)+W_0$ for all $t\in
[t^-,t^+]$. In other words, as $W_0$, we take the maximum of the
function $y^+(t)-z^-(t)$ on the interval $[t^-,t^+]$. 

The maximum of the concave quadratic function
$y^+(t)-z^-(t)=(y^+_0-z^-_0)+(y^+_1-z^-_1)\cdot t+y^-_2\cdot 
t^2$ is attained at
the point where its derivative is equal to 0, i.e., at the point 
$$t_m=-(y^+_1-z^-_1)/(2y^+_2).\eqno{(4)}$$
If this maximum is attained at the internal point $t_m$ of this interval,
then at $t_m$, the line
$z^-(t)+W_0$ is a tangent to $y^+(t)$, and therefore, 
there is no way to find a
lower line without increasing the worst-case width $W({\bf z})$. So,
in this case, $z^+(t)=z^-(t)+W_0$. 

If the maximum is attained in one of the endpoints, e.g., at $t^+$,
then, we can, keeping the straight line $z^+(t)$ 
at the point ($t^+,y^+(t^+))$,
lower its other end and still get the same
worst-case width. The lowest value of the best-case width is attained
when we lower the other end to the lowest possible position in which 
it is still above $y^+(t)$, i.e., to the position of a {\it tangent}
to $y^+(t)$. 
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Solution.} For the optimal approximation, 
the lower line $z^-(t)$ is a secant (2). 
To determine the upper line $z^+(t)$, we apply the formula (4) to 
compute the value $t_m$. Then:
\begin{itemize}
\item If $t_m\in [t^-,t^+]$, we take
$z^+(t)=z^-(t)+(y^+(t_m)-z^-(t_m))$. 
\item If $t_m>t^+$, then $z^+$ is the tangent to $y^+$ at $t^+$: 
$$z^+(t)=y^+(t^+)+(y^+_1+2y^+_2\cdot t^+)(t-t^+).\eqno{(5)}$$
\item If $t_m<t^-$, then $z^+$ is the tangent to $y^+$ at $t^-$: 
$$z^+(t)=y^+(t^-)+(y^+_1+2y^+_2\cdot t^-)(t-t^-).\eqno{(6)}$$
\end{itemize}

\section{Case 3: $y^-_2>0$, $y^+_2\ge 0$}

This case is similar to case 2, so we can immediately give a solution:
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Solution.} 
For the optimal approximation, 
the upper line $z^+(t)$ is a secant (3). 
To determine the lower line $z^-(t)$, we compute the value 
$t_m=-(y^-_1-z^+_1)/(2y^-_2).$
Then:
\begin{itemize}
\item If $t_m\in [t^-,t^+]$, we take
$z^-(t)=z^+(t)-(z^+(t_m)-y^-(t_m))$. 
\item If $t_m>t^+$, then $z^-$ is the tangent to $y^-$ at $t^+$: 
$$z^-(t)=y^-(t^+)+(y^-_1+2y^-_2t^+)(t-t^+).\eqno{(7)}$$ 
\item If $t_m<t^-$, then $z^-$ is the tangent to $y^-$ at $t^-$: 
$$z^-(t)=y^-(t^-)+(y^-_1+2y^-_2t^-)(t-t^-).\eqno{(8)}$$ 
\end{itemize}

\section{Case 4: $y^-_2>0$, $y^+_2<0$}

\noindent{\bf Derivation of the solution.} In this case, 
both functions $y^-(x)$ and $y^+(x)$ are ``pointing outward''. 

As a first step of constructing the optimal linear approximation ${\bf
z}(t)$, 
let us first make sure that we have the smallest possible value of the 
worst-case width. For every $t\in [t^-,t^+]$, 
from ${\bf y}(t)\subseteq {\bf z}(t)$, we can conclude that the width
of ${\bf z}(t)$ is at least as large as the width of the interval
${\bf y}(t)$. Thus, the worst-case width $W({\bf z})$ of the
approximating linear function ${\bf z}(t)$ cannot be
smaller than the worst-case width $W({\bf y})$ of the original
(quadratic) interval function ${\bf y}$. Since we are minimizing
$W({\bf z})$, it is therefore desirable to
choose $\bf z$ in such a way that its worst-case width is {\it
exactly equal} to $W({\bf y})$. 

The worst-case width $W({\bf y})$ is a maximum of the quadratic width
function $y^+(t)-y^-(t)$ on the interval $[t^-,t^+]$. By
differentiating this difference, one can easily get an explicit
expression for this maximum point $t_M$ (see below). 

If this maximum point $t_M$ is inside the interval $[t^-,t^+]$, then
at this point $t_M$, both approximating lines $z^-(t)$ and $z^+(t)$ 
must be tangent to the corresponding functions $y^-(t)$ and $y^+(t)$,
because otherwise, in at least one of the directions, the width will
increase.

If this maximum $t_M$ is attained at one the endpoints, e.g., for
$t^+$, then we must have $z^-(t^+)=y^-(t^+)$ and
$z^+(t^+)=y^+(t^+)$. In this case, to guarantee the smallest possible
{\it best-case} width, we must place $z^+(t)$ as low as possible
(i.e., along the tangent to $y^+$), and $z^-(t)$ as high as possible,
i.e., similarly, along the tangent to $y^-(t)$. 

As a result, we arrive at the following formulas:
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Solution.} Compute $t_M=-(y^+_1-y^-_1)/[2(y^+_2-y^-_2)].$
Then:
\begin{itemize}
\item If $t_M\in [t^-,t^+]$, then $z^-$ is the tangent to $y^-$ at
$t_M$, and $z^+$ is the tangent to $y^+$ at $t_M$: 
$z^-(t)=y^-(t_M)+(y^-_1+2y^-_2\cdot t_M)(t-t_M)$;
$z^+(t)=y^+(t_M)+(y^+_1+2y^+_2\cdot t_M)(t-t_M)$.
\item If $t_M>t^+$, then $z^-$ is the tangent (7) to $y^-$ at $t_+$,
and $z^+$ is the tangent (5) to $y^+$ at $t_+$;
\item If $t_M<t^-$, then $z^-$ is the tangent (8) to $y^-$ at $t_-$
and $z^+$ is the tangent (6) to $y^+$ at $t_-$.
\end{itemize}
\medskip

\noindent{\bf Acknowledgments.} This work was partially supported by
the NASA Pan American Center for Environmental and Earth Studies (PACES). 
The authors are thankful to Ann Gates, 
Vladik Kreinovich, Luc Longpr\'e, and Scott Starks
for their help and encouragement.

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\end{thebibliography}

\end{document}



